A Profile of King Edward III of England

A Profile of King Edward III of England Edward III, King of England and Lord of Ireland, ruled from 1327 until his death in 1377. Crowned at age fourteen, he assumed his personal rule three years later and earned early fame for his defeat of the Scots at Halidon Hill in 1333. Edward claimed the crown of France in 1337 effectively starting the Hundred Years War. During the conflicts early campaigns, he led English forces to victory at Sluys and Crà ©cy, while his son, Edward the Black Prince, earned a triumph at Poitiers. These successes allowed Edward to conclude the favorable Treaty of Brà ©tigny in 1360. His reign was also marked by the arrival of the Black Death (bubonic plague) in England and the evolution of Parliament. Early Life Edward III was born at Windsor on November 13, 1312 and was the grandson of the great warrior Edward I. The son of ineffective Edward II and his wife Isabella, the young prince was quickly made Earl of Chester to aid in shoring up his fathers weak position on the throne. On January 20, 1327, Edward II was deposed by Isabella and her lover Roger Mortimer and replaced by the fourteen-year old Edward III on February 1. Installing themselves as regents for the young king, Isabella and Mortimer effectively controlled England. During this time, Edward was routinely disrespected and treated poorly by Mortimer. Ascending to the Throne A year later, on January 24, 1328, Edward married Philippa of Hainault at York Minister. A close couple, she bore him fourteen children during their forty-one year marriage. The first of these, Edward the Black Prince was born on June 15, 1330. As Edward matured, Mortimer worked to abuse his post through the acquisition of titles and estates. Determined to assert his power, Edward had Mortimer and his mother seized at Nottingham Castle on October 19, 1330. Condemning Mortimer to death for assuming royal authority, he exiled his mother to Castle Rising in Norfolk. Looking North In 1333, Edward elected to renew the military conflict with Scotland and repudiated the Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton which had been concluded during his regency. Backing the claim of the claim of Edward Balliol to the Scottish throne, Edward advanced north with an army and defeated the Scots at the Battle of Halidon Hill on July 19. Asserting control over the southern counties of Scotland, Edward departed and left the conflict in the hands of his nobles. Over the next few years, their control slowly eroded as the forces of young Scottish King David II reclaimed the lost territory. Fast Facts: Edward III Nation: EnglandBorn: November 13, 1312 at Windsor CastleCoronation: February 1, 1327Died: June 21, 1377 at Sheen Palace, RichmondPredecessor: Edward II Successor: Richard IISpouse: Philippa of HainaultIssue: Edward the Black Prince, Isabella, Joan, Lionel, John of Gaunt, Edmund, Mary, Margaret, ThomasConflicts: Hundred Years WarKnown For: Battle of Halidon Hill, Battle of Sluys, Battle of Crà ©cy The Hundred Years War While war festered in the north, Edward was increasingly angered by the actions of France who supported the Scots and had been raiding the English coast. While the people of England began to fear a French invasion, the King of France, Philip VI, captured some of Edwards French lands including the duchy of Aquitaine and the county of Ponthieu. Rather than pay homage to Philip, Edward elected to assert his claim to the French crown as the only living male descendent of his deceased maternal grandfather, Philip IV. Invoking Salic law which banned succession along female lines, the French flatly rejected Edwards claim. Going to war with France in 1337, Edward initially limited his efforts to alliance building with various European princes and encouraging them to attack France. Key among these relationships was a friendship with the Holy Roman Emperor, Louis IV. While these efforts produced few results on the battlefield, Edward did win a critical naval victory at the Battle of Sluys on June 24, 1340. The triumph effectively gave England command of the Channel for much of the ensuing conflict. While Edward endeavored with his military operations, severe fiscal pressure began to mount on the government. Returning home in late 1340, he found the affairs of the realm in disarray and began a purge of the governments administrators. At Parliament the next year, Edward was compelled to accept financial limitations on his actions. Recognizing the need to placate Parliament, he agreed to their terms, however quickly began to override them later that year. After a few years of inconclusive fighting, Edward embarked for Normandy in 1346 with a large invasion force. Sacking Caen, they moved across northern France and inflicted a decisive defeat on Philip at the Battle of Crà ©cy. Edward III counting the dead at Crecy. Public Domain In the fighting, the superiority of the English longbow was demonstrated as Edwards archers cut down the flower of the French nobility. At the battle, Philip lost around 13,000-14,000 men, while Edward suffered only 100-300. Among those who proved themselves at Crà ©cy was the Black Prince who became one of his fathers most trusted field commanders. Moving north, Edwards successfully concluded the siege of Calais in August 1347. Recognized as a powerful leader, Edward was approached that November to run for Holy Roman Emperor following the death of Louis. Though he considered the request, he ultimately declined. The Black Death In 1348, the Black Death (bubonic plague) struck England killing nearly a third of the nations population. Halting military campaigning, the plague led to manpower shortages and dramatic inflation in labor costs. In an attempt to halt this, Edward and Parliament passed the Ordinance of Labourers (1349) and the Statute of Labourers (1351) to fix wages at pre-plague levels and restrict the movement of the peasantry. As England emerged from the plague, fighting resumed. On September 19, 1356, the Black Prince won a dramatic victory at the Battle Poitiers and captured King John II of France. King Edward III grants Aquitaine to his son Edward, the Black Prince. Public Domain Peace With France effectively operating without a central government, Edward sought to end the conflict with campaigns in 1359. These proved ineffective and the following year, Edward concluded the Treaty of Bretigny. By the terms of the treaty, Edward renounced his claim on the French throne in exchange for full sovereignty over his captured lands in France. Preferring the action of military campaigning to doldrums of daily governance, Edwards final years on the throne were marked by a lack of vigor as he passed much of the routine of government to his ministers. While England remained at peace with France, the seeds for renewing the conflict were sown when John II died in captivity in 1364. Ascending the throne, the new king, Charles V, worked to rebuild French forces and began open warfare in 1369. At age fifty-seven, Edward elected to dispatch one of his younger sons, John of Gaunt, to deal with the threat. In the ensuing fighting, Johns efforts proved largely ineffective. Concluding the Treaty of Bruges in 1375, English possessions in France were reduced to Calais, Bordeaux, and Bayonne. Later Reign This period was also marked by the death of Queen Philippa who succumbed to a dropsy-like illness at Windsor Castle on August 15, 1369. In the final months of her life, Edward began a controversial affair with Alice Perrers. Military defeats on the Continent and the financial costs of campaigning came to a head in 1376 when Parliament was convened to approve additional taxation. With both Edward and the Black Prince battling illness, John of Gaunt was effectively overseeing the government. Dubbed the Good Parliament, the House of Commons used the opportunity to express a long list of grievances which led to the removal of several of Edwards advisors. In addition, Alice Perrers was banished from court as it was believed she wielded too much influence over the aged king. The royal situation was further weakened in June when the Black Prince died. While Gaunt was compelled to give into Parliaments demands, his fathers condition worsened. In September 1376, he developed a large abscess. Though he briefly improved during the winter of 1377, Edward III finally died of a stroke on June 21, 1377. As the Black Prince had died, the throne passed to Edwards grandson, Richard II, who was only ten. Renowned as one of Englands great warrior kings, Edward III was buried at Westminster Abbey. Beloved by his people, Edward is also credited for founding the knightly Order of the Garter in 1348. A contemporary of Edwards, Jean Froissart, wrote that His like had not been seen since the days of King Arthur.

Effect of atenolol on contractile function Essays

Effect of atenolol on contractile function Essays Effect of atenolol on contractile function Essay Effect of atenolol on contractile function Essay Consequence of Tenormin on contractile map during ischaemia and reperfusion in the rat isolated perfused bosom Purpose:?-blockers are thought to exercise good effects on the ischaemic bosom. We examine the consequence of Tenormin, a selective ?1 adversary, on contractile map at low ( 10 µM ) and high ( 50 µM ) concentrations in the stray rat Black Marias. Methods:Isolated rat Black Marias ( n=8 in each group ) were perfused with Krebs solution for 5-min. They were so perfused with test solution: controls incorporating Krebs, or selective Tenormin ( 10 µM ) or high concentration of Tenormin ( 50 µM ) . After 10-min, the Black Marias were subjected to 30-min of planetary ischaemia ( zero-flow ) followed by reperfusion with the same trial solution as earlier. The starling curves were constructed prior to and after ischemia. Consequences:No important alterations in maximal ischemic contracture and clip to half maximum contracture were seen in Black Marias pre-treated with test solutions. LVEDP was increased by 4-fold in control for Tenormin ( 10 µM ) and by 12-fold in Black Marias treated with control for Tenormin ( 50 µM ) , 5-min after reperfusion, comparing to pre-ischemic values ( P lt ; 0.05 for control for atenolol 10 µM vs. control for atenolol 50 µM ) . No alterations in coronary flow or bosom rate were observed between groups at baseline and during reperfusion. LVEDP was quickly increased from 2.6 ±1.3 mmHg to 28.6 ±9.0 mmHg in control for Tenormin ( 50 µM ) and from 4.0 ±1.6 mmHg to 27.3 ±7.6 mmHg with Tenormin ( 50 µM ) , in the starling curves constructed with 60 µl of increase in the balloon, prior to the ischemia and after reperfusion ( P lt ; 0.05 for pre-ischaemic perfusion vs. post-ischaemic reperfusion ) . Decisions:The present survey shows that Tenormin has no cardioprotective effects on contractile map during ischemia and reperfusion in stray rat Black Marias. Introduction ?-blockers have been widely shown to hold cardioprotective effects on ischaemia and hypoxic Black Marias, including betterment in ventricular map, and ensuing in a reduced mortality rate in ischaemic bosom disease patients ( Wallace et al. , 1998 ) . Although, the exact mechanisms by which cardioprotective agents act are non yet to the full understood, ? blockers are thought to exercise good effects on the ischaemic bosom by take downing myocardial O ingestion as a effect of decreased contractility and bosom rate ( HR ) . The consequence of ?-adrenergic receptor adversary, Tenormin, on the contractile map in the stray bosom is still a controversial subject of research. Several surveies have shown that Tenormin does non protect against ischaemia-reperfusion in a theoretical account of an stray perfused bosom exposed to planetary or no-flow ischemia ( Singh et al. , 1995 ; Harada et al. , 1981 ) . However, on the other terminal of the spectrum there have been studies bespeaking that an ischemic period of longer than 3-4 min induces important release ( 2700pmol/g bosom ) of endogenous catelchoamines ( norepinephrine ) in the stray rate bosom ( Wollenberger and Shabab, 1965 ) . In add-on, an flood of catecholamines during the reperfusion period has besides been reported, which is thought to be a consequence of washout of norepinephrine antecedently released from the sympathetic nervousnesss or due to a reperfsion activated release ( SchSmig et al. , 1984 ; Carlsson et Al 1985 ) . It is suggested that cate cholamines mediates contractility of the cardiac musculus. These agents work by triping ?-adrenergic receptors, taking to the activation of adenylyl cyclase, which so elevates the degrees of a secondary courier camp. Increased camp activates protein kinase A ( PKA ) , which causes increased entry of Ca into the cell, ensuing in positive inotropy ( increased contractility ) in the cardiac musculus. The positive inotropic consequence due to high degrees of endogenous catecholamine should be hence attenuated by the usage of selective concentration of ?1-adrenoceptor adversary, Tenormin. In order to prove the counter consequence of Tenormin, we use a selective concentration of Tenormin ( 10 µM ) on a normal operation rat bosom and in a theoretical account in of 30-min of globally ischemic induced rat bosom followed by 10-min of reperfusion. Since the release of endogenous catecholamines upon ischaemia is controversial, we besides used a high concentration of Tenormin ( 50 µM ) to find counter action of non-selective atenolol dose on receptors other than ?1-adrenoceptors, and to see if it enhances recovery in contractile map upon ischemia. The Langendorff scenes were used in this experiment as it is a widely used readying which provides valuable information on left ventricular systolic and diastolic force per unit areas and their derived functions in Black Marias, subjected to ischemia ( Skrzypiec-Spring et al. , 2007 ) Methods Anaesthesia, bosom deletion and perfusion All experiments were carried out in understanding with the United Kingdom Home Office Guide on the Operation of the Animals ( Scientific Procedures ) Act 1986. Rats ( male Wistar strain ; Sigma chemicals U.K. , 230-280g ; n=8 in each group ) were anaesthetised with Nembutal by an intraperitoneal injection ( 60mg/kg ) . An endovenous injection of Lipo-Hepin ( 300 I.U ) , an decoagulant, was given to forestall the formation of thrombi. Heartss were so excised: foremost, the stop was accessed by a transabdominal scratch and cut carefully to expose the thoracic pit. The thorax was opened by a bilateral scratch along the lower border of the last to first ribs and the pectoral coop was so reflected over the animate being s caput, thereby exposing the bosom. The bosom was so cupped between the fingers ( in order to avoid bruise hurt ) and lifted somewhat before incising the aorta, vena cava and pneumonic vass. To avoid any ischaemic hurt, after deletion, Black Marias were instantly immersed in ice-cold perfusion solution ( 4 °C ) incorporating following composing ( in millimeter ) : NaClA 118.5, NaHCO3 25.0, KCl 3.0, MgSO4 1.2, NaH2PO4 1.2, gluc ose 11.1, CaCl2 1.4, followed by the canulation of the aorta and the bosom was so perfused retrogradely down the aorta, harmonizing to the Langendorff manner ( 1895 ) with a changeless hydrostatic force per unit area equivalent to 100 cmH2O, and perfusion solutions aerated with a gas mixture of 95 % O2 + 5 % CO2, delivered at pH of 7.4 at 37 °C. A changeless temperature 37 °C of the perfusate was maintained with a heat money changer ( Techne Circulators C85-A, UK ) . Perfusion solutions were non recirculated. Measurement of left ventricular force per unit area utilizing intraventricular balloons After remotion of the left atrial extremity, a fluid-filled compliant balloon was attached via a blunt-ended acerate leaf ( 21 gage ) and a catheter to a force per unit area transducer, which was carefully inserted into the left ventricular pit via the mitral valve. The balloon was used to find the contractile activity of the bosom: the measuring of left ventricular systolic ( LVEDP ) and diastolic force per unit areas and ( by difference ) left ventricular developed force per unit area ( LVDP ) and the bosom rate. The balloon was ab initio inflated with H2O from a microsyringe until a developed force per unit area of 100 mmHg was obtained so farther volume was added to bring forth starling curve. The force per unit area transducer was connected to a biological recording system equipped with amplifier ( PowerLab 4/25, AD Instruments ) . Experimental protocol The stableness and duplicability of each readying was monitored by mensurating the baseline contractile map during the first 15-min of aerophilic perfusion. Heartss were perfused for an initial 5-min with a standard Krebs solution, followed by another 10-min perfusion with one of the several trial solutions, which were perfusion solutions incorporating Tenormin ( 10 µM ) , control for Tenormin ( 10 µM ) , atenolol ( 50 µM ) and control for Tenormin ( 50 µM ) . Standard Krebs solution was switched to one of the trial solution in a randomized blinded mode, in order to avoid prejudice. Blinding was achieved by coding the solutions, with the codification unknown to the person. Ethanol ( 0.05 % v/v ) was moving as a drug vehicle for Krebs solution, and added to all the perfusion solutions to extinguish vehicle as a beginning of discrepancy. The relationship between the intraventricular volume and the force per unit area was studied as described by Otto Frank in 1895, the Frank-Starling jurisprudence of the bosom ( Frank et al. , 1895 ) . The balloon was deflated to the nothing volume, prior to the building of starling curves, and so increasingly inflated by adding 0.02ml increases to the balloon ( 30s at each increase ) , until a diastolic force per unit area of 20 mmHg could be observed, during which clip systolic, diastolic, and developed force per unit area, bosom rate and coronary flow were monitored. The balloon was deflated back to zero volume. After baseline experiments, the Black Marias were made globally ischemic ( zero-flow ischemia ) for 30-min by clamping off the aortal flow. During ischemia, Black Marias were immersed in Krebs solution and temperature was recorded with a thermometer. Heartss were so reperfused for 10-min under the same conditions of baseline ; therefore the intraventricular balloon was deflated sufficiently to re-establish a developed force per unit area of 100 mmHg. Another starling curve was so constructed via the same intraventricular balloon method and the appropriate measurings were recorded. Measurement of coronary flow The measuring of coronary flow was performed by mensurating timed volumes of perfusate run outing out of the right atrium. Flow was calculated as ml/min/g of wet tissue, therefore taking into history any differences in weight between single Black Marias. Drugs All the drugs were obtained from Sigma Chemical Co. ( Dorset, UK ) . Atenolol was diluted in Krebs solution, in order to accomplish appropriate concentrations ( 10 µM and 50 µM ) . Statisticss Datas are expressed as mean ±SEM. Two-tailed t-test was performed presuming two-sample equal discrepancy ( homoscedastic ) . A difference was considered to be statistically important when P lt ; 0.05. Consequences Development of ischaemic contracture during 30 min of planetary Ischemia Maximal ischemic contracture was determined by mensurating the maximal rise in diastolic force per unit area from the baseline point. Time to onset 50 % of the maximum contracture was besides found, which is an accurate step to measure ischemia-induced diastolic disfunction ( Fig.1 ) . Conventional representation of development of ischemic contracture ( during 30 min of planetary ischemia ) for an single hint of Tenormin ( 10 µM ) in the rat isolated bosom. A rapid rise in LVEDP was noticed shortly after the initiation of planetary ischemia. Owing to the fact that volume in the balloon was kept changeless therefore any addition in LVEDP was stand foring contracture of the stray rat bosom. Function during the ischemia was non the Centre of attending here and merely certain effects of the intercessions were noted. There were no important differences, in footings of the maximum contracture and clip to achieve 50 % of maximal contracture, between the two control groups and the comparative values of Tenormin ( 10 µM ) and Tenormin ( 50 µM ) group ( Fig.2 ) . The clip to half-maximal contracture was 20.8 ±4.3 min with a peak contracture of 30.8 ±6.1 mmHg in the Black Marias treated with control for Tenormin ( 10 µM ) . No important consequence of planetary ischaemic on contracture development was seen in Black Marias treated with Tenormin ( 10 µM ) i.e. , the clip to half maximal contracture occurred at 16.0 ±2.7 min and peak contracture at 38 ±7.2 mmHg. This was besides the instance for Black Marias perfused with high concentration of Tenormin ( 50 µM ) , ensuing in peak contracture of 41.3 ±4.5 mmHg and the clip to half maximum contracture of 14.4 ±2.2 min, in comparing to the matching values of control for high concentration in which peak contracture and half-maximal contracture were delayed to 43.0 ±7.6 mmHg and 15.8 ±2.4 min, severally. Consequence of Tenormin ( 10 µM ) and Tenormin ( 50 µM ) on extremum ischaemic contracture development and clip to half-maximal ischemic contracture. Datas are mean ±S.E.M. There were no important differences between groups. n=8 in each group. Postischaemic profile for: ( a ) terminal diastolic force per unit area, ( B ) developed force per unit area, ( degree Celsius ) bosom rate and ( vitamin D ) coronary flow in stray rate Black Marias treated with Tenormin ( 10 µM ) , control for Tenormin ( 10 µM ) , atenolol ( 50 µM ) and control for Tenormin ( 50 µM ) . Baseline represents values taken 1-min anterior to the ischemia ; 5 and 9 min represents reperfusion clip points after 30-min of planetary ischemia. Valuess are average  ± SEM ; n=8 in each group. *P lt ; 0.05 ( control for atenolol 10 µM vs. control for atenolol 50 µM ) . Postischaemic recovery of terminal diastolic force per unit area, developed force per unit area, bosom rate and coronary flow LVEDP rose by 4-fold in control for Tenormin ( 10 µM ) 5-min after reperfusion comparing with the values before the oncoming of ischemia ( Fig.2 ) . In contrast, a rapid addition by 12-folds was noticed in Black Marias treated with control for Tenormin ( 50 µM ) ( P lt ; 0.05 control for atenolol 10 µM vs. control for atenolol 50 µM ) . LVDP fell down by 21 % and 57 % in Black Marias treated with controls for Tenormin ( 10 µM and 50 µM, severally ) 5-min after the oncoming of reperfusion comparing with the values before the oncoming of ischemia. This clearly shows that post-ischaemic recovery of LVDP was hapless in Black Marias treated with control solutions. The corresponding decrease in LVDP by a little border of 4 % and 13 % in Black Marias treated Tenormin ( 10 µM ) and Tenormin ( 50 µM ) severally, may be a small surprising but such values are non extremely important in comparing to the controls, hence no important betterment in post-ischaemic LVDP recovery is observed. No important alterations in coronary flow were seen between groups at baseline. During reperfusion, no damage in the coronary flow was apparent in the Black Marias treated with Tenormin ( 10 µM ) and high Tenormin ( 50 µM ) in comparing to the comparative values for control groups. Besides, no important difference in the bosom rate was found at the baseline and at the terminal of 10-min reperfusion between any of the groups. With 60 µM of increase in the balloon, there was a significant rise in the diastolic force per unit area for the starling curve taken prior to the oncoming of ischemic in comparing with values taken 30-min after the ischemia, for Black Marias treated with Tenormin ( 50 µM ) , and control for Tenormin ( 50 µM ) . The diastolic force per unit area drastically increased from 2.6 ±1.3 mmHg to 28.6 ±9.0 mmHg ( P lt ; 0.05 ) for Black Marias treated with control for Tenormin ( 50 µM ) and a corresponding rise from 4.0 ±1.6 mmHg to 27.3 ±7.6 mmHg ( P lt ; 0.05 ) in Tenormin ( 50 µM ) treated Black Marias. This clearly indicates a presence of diastolic disfunction. No important rise in diastolic force per unit area was seen in Black Marias treated with control for Tenormin ( 10 µM ) and Tenormin ( 10 µM ) . Relationship between diastolic force per unit areas obtained with 60 µM of increase in the balloon prior to the oncoming of 30 min ischemic and postischaemia in the rat isolated bosom treated perused with the trial solutions. Datas are mean ±S.E.M. ( *P lt ; 0.05 pre-ischaemic perfusion vs. post-ischaemic reperfusion ) . n=8 in each group. Developed force per unit area dropped down by 21 % and 28 % in Black Marias treated with Tenormin ( 10 µM ) and Tenormin ( 50 µM ) , severally, for the values taken before the oncoming of ischemia and after 30 min of ishaemic period with 60 µM of increase in the balloon. In contrast, a little rise in developed force per unit area by 9 % and 24 % in Black Marias treated with control for Tenormin ( 10 µM ) and control for Tenormin ( 50 µM ) . In both instances, an addition or lessening in developed force per unit area was non extremely important. Discussions A rise in ischaemic contracture was noticed in the current survey, which is thought to be due to depletion of ATP production via glycolytic tract ( anaerobiotic glycolysis ) instead than entire cellular ATP content ( Kingsley et al. , 1991 ) . It is besides believed that an early contracture may hold Ca constituent as intracellular free Ca ions are reported as a cardinal go-between of ischemic hurt ( Tani M. , 1990 ) . In order to understate ischaemic hurt we used a recommended concentration of Ca ( 1.4mmol/L ) in the perfused solutions ( Fiona et al. , 2003 ) . No decrease in the maximal-ischemic contracture was seen in Black Marias pre-treated with atenolol therefore Tenormin did non hold any contraceptive consequence on ischemic contracture development. This was farther apparent by no protraction of the clip to half maximum contracture, in the presence of Tenormin, proposing that ischaemic hurt was non reversed in this instance. An expected ague rise in ventricular diastolic force per unit area and a diminution in developed force per unit area was detected in all ischemic-subjected Black Marias ( Porter T. , 1895 ) . Atenolol did non do important postischaemic recovery in LVPD and LVEDP during reperfusion. Although, Black Marias treated with control for Tenormin ( 50 µM ) had a rapid rise in LVEDP in comparing to the Black Marias treated with control for Tenormin ( 10 µM ) such difference could be due to variableness in the consequences as experiment was carried out in two different yearss and environmental conditions may hold influenced consequences to a certain extent. In add-on, the dependability of consequences is besides questionable as few values could non be taken during the experiments due to an oncoming of ventricular fibrillation taking to inaccurate average values. No major alterations in bosom rate and coronary flow were seen between groups at baseline and 10 min after reperfusion in Black Marias subjected to ischaemia. Changes in coronary flow are usually accompanied by alterations in LVDP ; hence no important alterations in coronary flow confirm the cogency of LVDP step as antecedently described. There was a mark of diastolic disfunction as evident in the starling curve constructed prior to the oncoming of ischemic in comparing to the values taken after reperfusion. This diastolic disfunction further indicates no mediated cardioprotective effects of Tenormin as preconditioning, and reperfusion with Tenormin did non rarefy contractile disfunction. In drumhead the present survey shows that both low ( 10 µM ) and high ( 50 µM ) doses of Tenormin did non hold any cardioprotective effects on ischaemic/reperfusion hurt in stray rat Black Marias. The effectivity of ?-adrenoceptor encirclement in the ischaemic reperfused stray Black Marias has been demonstrated in the past surveies. Lu et al reported that pretreatment with Tenormin did non demo betterment in postischemic recovery in the stray coney Black Marias ( Lu et al. , 1990 ) . They used 10 mg/l of Tenormin in the Black Marias subjected to 25-min ischemia, followed by 30 min of reperfusion. The average functional recovery of aortal flow was merely 6 % in Black Marias treated with a control solution and no important rise in aortal flow recovery could be observed with Tenormin treated Black Marias. In the bosom, ?-adrenergic responses to catecholamines are most normally associated with the activation of ?1-adrenergic receptors. Nevertheless, cardiac musculus besides possesses a important population of ?2-adrenergic receptors ( Brodde. , 1991 ; Kaumann et al. , 1987 ) and a infinitesimal population of a1-adrenoceptors ( Lutz et al. , 2003 ) . In this survey, we used a selective concentration of Tenormin, which has antecedently shown to hinder the positive ionotrophic consequence of catecholamines. The selective concentration of the Tenormin ( 10 µM ) was chosen to be 1  ± 2 orders of magnitude above its several pA2 ( Borje J. , 1979 ; Kenakin. , 1993 ) . No consequence of selective Tenormin on cardiac recovery was seen, which could be due to two grounds: a ) there was no endogenous release of catecholamine B ) an increased contractility was a consequence of catecholamine moving on receptors other than ?1-adrenoceptors ( ?2 and a1 receptors ) , which are non antagonised by selective concentration of Tenormin. If latter was the instance, should we have observed a recovery in contractile map with higher concentration of Tenormin? Well, no discernible recovery in cardiac map was seen with higher doses of Tenormin ( 50 µM ) . For case, if atenolol ( 50 µM ) was moving on ?2-adrenoreceptors so it would hold caused a diminution in bosom rate, which was non the instance in this survey. It could besides intend that 5-fold higher concentration of Tenormin ( 50 µM ) . used in this survey, was non powerful plenty to move on receptors other than ?1-adrenoceptors ( ?2 or a1 receptors ) . On the footing of our consequences, we conclude that Tenormin did non hold a cardioprotective consequence, which could be due to really low concentration of catecholamines present in the nervus terminations. However, the dependability of our decision is so problematic as there was a batch of variableness in the consequences which made it complicated to construe. Study restrictions Perfusion force per unit area was provided by adding appropriate sum of trial solution to the reservoir. In some instances, reservoir was non topped up and this would hold led to low hydrostatic force per unit area, therefore a low coronary flow the latter is thought to be straight relative to perfusion force per unit area ( Fiona et al. , 2003 ) . It is hence of import to utilize a changeless perfusion force per unit area of 60-100 mmHg utilizing a perfusion force per unit area transducer, connected to a tripartite pat instantly above the aortal cannula ( Fiona et al. , 1999 ) . In this survey we merely controlled temperature of perfusion solution utilizing a heat money changer. Surveies have shown that alterations in tissue temperature are associated with LVDP and bosom rate steps ( Fiona et al. , 2003 ) . A alteration could be made by environing the bosom with a thermostatically controlled water-jacked chamber to keep its temperature at 37.0 ±0.2 °C throughout the experiment. In add-on, Black Marias could besides be maintained at 37 °C during ischaemic period. For better reading of consequences, one could utilize another ?-adrenoceptor adversary, such as propranolol, which acts on both ?1 and ?2-adrenoceptors. This would bespeak drug action on ?2-adrenoceptors, therefore giving us a clearer image of the presence of catecholamines, if any. On the other manus, catecholamine could be added exogenously, in the presence or absence of Tenormin, to detect any differential effects. Other possible betterments include widening the reperfusion clip from 10-min to 1hr, in order to detect farther alterations in cardiac map. Furthermore, the whole experiment could be done in one twenty-four hours clip to minimise influences of environmental conditions. Mentions: 1. Brodde, O.-E. ?1- and ?2-Adrenoceptors in the human bosom: belongingss, map, and changes in chronic bosom failure. Pharmacol. Rev. 43: 203-242, 1991 2. Frank O. Zur Dynamik des Herzmuskels.Z Biol32: 370-437, 1895. 3. Harada S, Ban T, Fujita T, Koshiro A. Negative inotropic effects and the hydrophobicity of beta-adrenergic barricading agents. Arch Int Pharmacodyn 1981 ; 252:262-71. 4. Hein A ; Schmitt, 2003. L. Hein and J.P. Schmitt, a1-Adrenoceptors in the bosom: friend or foe? . J Mol Cell Cardiol 35 ( 2003 ) , pp. 1183-1185. 5. Johansson B. Effectss of Tenormin, metroprolol, and pamatolol on cardiac and vascular ?-adrenoceptorsA in the rat.J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1979 ; 1:287-98 6. Kaumann, A. J. , and H. Lemoine. ?2-adrenoceptor-mediated positive inotropic consequence of epinephrine in human ventricular myocardium. Quantitative disagreements with binding and adenylate cyclase stimulation. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch. Pharmacol. 335: 403-411, 1987 7. KENAKIN, T. ( 1993 ) . Pharmacological Analysis of Drug-Receptor Interaction. pp. 376- 378. New York: Raven Imperativeness 8. Kingsley PB, Sako EY, Yang MQ, Zimmer SD, Ugurbil K, Foker JE, From AH. Ischemic contracture begins when anaerobiotic glycolysis Michigans: a 31P-NMR survey of stray rat Black Marias. Am J Physiol. 1991 ; 261: H469-H478. 9. L. Carlsson, T. Abrahamsson and O. Almgren, Local release of myocardial noradrenaline during acute-ischemia an experimental-study in the stray perfused rat-heart, J. Cardiovasc. Pharm. 7 ( 1985 ) , pp. 791-798. 10. Lu HR, Vandeplassche G, Wouters L, Flameng W, Borgers M. Effects of /3-adrenoceptor adversaries on cardiac map in ischemic-reperfused myocardium of the stray on the job coney bosom. Eur J Pharmacol. 1990 ; 184:65-74. 11. Porter T. On the consequences of ligation of the coronary arterias. J Physiol ( London ) 1895 ; 15:121. 12. Schomig A, Dart AM, Dietz R, Mayer E, KObler W. Release of endogenous catecholamines in the ischaemic myocardium of the rat. Separate A: Locally mediated release. Circ Res 1984 ; 55: 689-701. 13. Singh N, Seneviratne CK, Singal PK. 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Assessment and management of Barrett's disease Essay

Assessment and management of Barrett's disease - Essay Example This condition is seen more commonly in later age. Barrett’s esophagus is a pre malignant condition in which changes of dysplasia and carcinoma reported. Patients having Barrett’s disease have 30-40 fold increase risk of developing carcinoma- esophagus. To critically understand the disease, first we have to learn normal esophageal defence mechanism because most of the cases this disease is result of failure of esophageal defense mechanism. The lower esophageal sphincter, which is a localized area of specialized smooth muscles cited at distal end of the esophagus, is the main barrier to reflex. This sphincter is normally contracted thus creating a zone of high pressure so preventing the passage of gastric contents into the esophagus. In normal subjects the esophageal sphincter relaxes during swallowing but at other times there are spontaneous transient relaxations. In those with reflex esophagitis, reflex is increased because the normal or resting pressure of the sphincter is reduced and number of transient relaxations is increased because the sphincter is situated below the diaphragm, its high pressure is reinforced by intra abdominal pressure, moreover the oblique entry of esophagus into the stomach ensures that the intra abdominal esophagus is closed when the stomach is distended. These mechanisms are lost when the lower esophageal sphincter moves proximally to be situated above the diaphragm. Once reflex has occurred, rapid clearance of acid from the esophagus into stomach limits its contact with esophageal mucosa and this effective clearance depends upon secondary peristalsis and the presence of saliva and is enhanced by the erect position. It is impaired in supine position. Barrett’s disease is commonly seen in later age groups. It is divided into short ( 3 cm), according to the length of

Ethography Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ethography - Coursework Example IÄŸsÄ ±z illustrates the impact of society on religion through political and geographic factors. The discussion follows the â€Å"meseumization† of heritage, in the form of religion following geographical distribution and history of the society in concept. The Greece and Turkey Orthodox-Islam change is documents as the basis of discussion in the paper (1). Kapchan discusses the incorporation of linguistics in preservation of Religious history. The paper considers the detailing of religion in history, and its role in determining the â€Å"literacy† and the comprehension of society, with respect to the economy and the impact culture and religion has on society (66). Mahmood uses the chapter to explore the concept of Islamic nationalism in the context of politics and social trends. He uses the text to assess the subject of ethics and their origin, addressing the basis of the behavior and acceptability, via the definition of acts that are positive and ethical (121). Society is defined by a choice of acceptable behaviors, relations, agreements, and beliefs. The theme that is prevalent in the five articles is Islamic Religion and Ethics; Islam as a religion and how its principles have affected the community pegged on origin, and traditions. The adherence to pillars of Islam is subjected to analysis following the integration of changes associated with politics, inter-cultural interaction, and individual preferences. Although individuals have ideas of what they deem acceptable, society (incorporating religion) judgment calls of behavior, and norms and values are established with a strong foundation in the past. The existence of factions in religion, such as Sufism in Islam, follows a discord in the principles of ethics, norms, and values. Failure to come to a common ground between society and religion results in the region of conflict from

Four functions of management case study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Four functions of management - Case Study Example However, you did not put some of the management functions in place. It was the reason for the business failures as the business grew in size. The management skills, which accrue to a business’s success that you did not put into consideration, include controlling, planning, organizing, and directing skills that accrue to a successful business. Directing: One of the reasons that affected the business’ success was your directive skills. According to your business statistics, you employed Lisa and entrusted her with all the business operations. Irrespective of you two being friends for a long time, you should not have trusted her with all the directive orders. She would report to work, wash the office and tidy up then start her daily chores. This was a lot for her and what she had not expected. She had to check all the tax forms and serve all the customers. For a business to be successful and achieve the goals and objectives, it should ensure a proper channel of communicati on between the workers (Richman 2012). Lisa had confidence that she was doing the right thing even after adding the three new employees. You should have controlled all of them since you are the senior manager. You should have given your orders to the employees in case of any changes, which should have been directly, or indirectly through According to Directive Path Theory, a business leader should give freedom to his/his employees for them to realize their job expectations. In reference to the theory, your management should do a follow up on employees’ tasks to ensure that they achieve the required job standards and set goals. Remarkably, members of the management are required to involve the subordinate staff in the process of making strategic decisions. You should have involved your employees in decision-making processes that would have helped produce effective workplace union. Employees can also motivated by awarding them accordingly after excellent progress in their work. Awards can be through issuing of presents and souvenir just as you did in your case. Additionally, you did not put your supervisions skills into consideration hence led to your employees taking advantage of the situation. As for Lisa’s case, she would not let you down due to your close relationship but the other employees would due to lack of an employee-employer relationship. It was the cause for the embezzlement of funds by your accountants. Communication is an essential measure in business management and should be employed to ensure a communication between top management and the junior staff (Richman, 2012). Communication avenues includes vertical and horizontal. In your case, you only emphasized on vertical communication. It entailed her communication skills with Lisa but not the other accountants. However, you did not consider horizontal type of communication. Good management skills allow both horizontal and vertical communication that entails an open office where commun ication occurs from all sides. These sides include communication from the senior management to the junior staff and the vice versa. Management should ensure an open office relationship where you allow your staff to make suggestions on issues before making decisions. Planning: On the issue of planning, you had good plans while establishing the job. You hired just one employee to cut costs that would boost the capital needed. However, according to management theories on planning, duties should be

Does plato’s republic still stand in today’s society?

Does plato’s republic still stand in today’s society? Few philosophers in ancient and modern history continue to have as much influence as Plato. More than 2500 years after Platos death, his teachings regarding justice and the ideal state continue to inspire discussion and debate. The ideal community he envisioned in The Republic continues to influence leaders and political thinkers, and his study of the ideal state formed the foundations of political science. This paper examines the continuing relevance of the book The Republic, with particular focus on Platos concepts of justice, happiness and the ideal society. Plato was born in Athens in 427 BC. He belonged to an aristocratic family, as his father was a descendant of an Athenian king while his mother was distantly related to the lawmaker Solon. Platos father died early, and his mother re-married an associate of Pericles, the statesman. Based on familial ties, Plato had strong connections with both democracy and the oligarchy. Following his stepfathers footsteps, the young Plato had political ambitions. Soon, however, he became disillusioned by the corrupt and inefficient political leadership in Athens. Plato then followed his older brothers who had become pupils of Socrates. Plato eventually became a great follower of Socrates, adopting the great teachers basic philosophy and style of debate. Plato also vigorously adopted Socrates motto, Know thyself, and he pursued this knowledge through Socrates dialectical system of questions, answers and additional questions. This critical method of instruction, however, caused Socrates to fall into disfavor with his students. The teacher was tried for religious impiety and corruption of youth and was sentenced to death. Socrates death further increased Platos dissatisfaction with all existing political regimes. In 387 BC, Plato founded his own school, the Academy, in Athens. This university was for higher studies, with instruction in the sciences, mathematics and philosophy. The academy attracted students for more than nine centuries. Plato continued to teach and served as president of the Academy until his death in 347 at the age of 80. In The Republic, Plato proposes his theory that the ideal state or polis can only be achieved through a balance of elements. Political justice can only be present when people serve their functions, as determined by their tripartite souls. Plato believed that the human soul is divided into three elements. First, there are the bodily appetites, expressed through bodily needs such as hunger and thirst. Second are the spiritual elements, expressed through emotions like love, anger and compassion. Above all, the third element that separates people from animals and makes them unique is the human ability to use language and reason. Plato compared the soul to an organism. An imbalance among these elements leads to conflict, sickness and misery. Plato also believed that there are three types of personalities. The most common is the person dominated by bodily appetites. This person is desires, money and possessions. The second personality is dominated by the spirit. This person would be driven by goals like success, fame and power. Finally, there is the person who is dominated by reason, the person who aspires towards truth and wisdom. He or she would be willing to give up family, forgo basic appetites and live the austere lifestyle to discover the unchangeable human essence. Plato believed that happiness comes when these three elements of the soul are satisfied under the rule of reason. This is a difficult endeavor, for the bodily drives often conflict with reason. However, knowledge and right conduct can only come from a soul dominated by reason. Hence, only those who are governed by reason and knowledge should be in a position to govern the other members of society. Like the human soul, Plato also viewed society as an organism. In Platos ideal society, each persons social role will be determined by the element dominant in his or her soul. People who are ruled by bodily appetites would make the best producers farmers, laborers, hunters, merchants and the others whose work sustains a populaces physical needs. People who are driven by spiritual desires like honor, loyalty, fame and other spiritual elements should be members of a citys auxiliary and military staff. Finally, there are the men and women who are ruled by reason. They are devoid of family ties and do not possess private property. Through years of training, they could enact laws and make decisions based on reason and wisdom, on what Plato termed the idea of the good. These, Plato believed, are the philosophers who should also be kings. Only people who are dominated by reason should become guardians. Plato was critical of Athenian society, which allowed even people who are ruled by bodily appetites to govern. In Platos view, this leads to an imbalance in the social organism, manifesting in the societal conflict and corruption that turned him away from politics as a young man. Platos belief in establishing harmony within conflicting human and social elements led him to conclude that an ideal society must be governed by knowledgeable and reason-driven elite. Platos descriptions of justice, virtue and happiness are very different from the modern understandings of these terms. For Plato, all these concepts are entwined in his understanding of the ideal state and, again, his concept of the tripartite soul. In The Republic, Plato wrote of his concept of individual justice as an offshoot of what he sees as a tripartite soul. Plato believed that the human soul is divided into three elements. First, there are the bodily appetites, expressed through bodily needs such as hunger and thirst. Second are the spiritual elements, expressed through emotions like love, anger and compassion. Above all, the third element that separates people from animals and makes them unique is the human ability to use language and reason (Rice 58-61). The theory of political justice parallels the theory of individual justice. For Plato, a city is man writ large against the sky. Since people are social animals, cities are a natural extension and mirror of the human soul. In Platos ideal society, each persons social role should be determined by the element dominant in his or her soul. Political justice occurs when the guardians rule wisely and the other classes do their tasks, ensuring the smooth function of the social organism. As in the body, when all aspects of society function as one, there will be harmony. This harmony engenders the reign of political justice, resulting in a state that is free from war or civil disorder. An imbalance among these elements leads to conflict, sickness and misery. Individual happiness can only happen when all three elements are in balance. Only when this balance occurs can a person live a just and harmonious life (Rice 61). For Plato, ensuring that the guardians rule wisely and the other classes do their tasks will facilitate the smooth function of the social organism. When all aspects of society function as one, there will be harmony. This harmony begets the reign of political justice, resulting in a state that is free from war or civil disorder. Only in such a society can human happiness be possible, as the alternative is chaos. Plato thus viewed happiness as an abstract, a fringe benefit of living a virtuous life and facilitating a harmonious social organization. Plato used the haunting allegory of the cave as a metaphor for the human condition. Plato believed that ordinary humans who do not bother to, in the Socratic tradition, examine their lives were doomed to live like prisoners in a cave. These prisoners can only see shadows, which are created by artificial light and manipulated by unseen overlords (Plato 514a-519a). These individuals cannot have proper concepts of their existence and their needs. They do not have the knowledge to recognize their victimization and therefore have to desire to be free. Any interruption in their ways of thought such as a prisoner who escapes and returns, telling of the sunlight outside the cave is regarded with disrespect and suspicion. Only by leaving the cave can these prisoners ever learn the difference between what is real and what are artificial shadows. Several criticisms have been written regarding the weaknesses in Platos formulations. Though a modern reading of Plato would find his concepts of democracy and justice as strange, criticisms regarding this work began much earlier. For example, Platos formulation of happiness is understandable given how the ancient Greeks stressed the importance of the polis. However, viewed from a modern perspective, what Plato defines as happiness is more like contentment. People live their lives according to an inner nature that is inflexible. They derive satisfaction from fulfilling their assigned societal roles. Platos definition, however, lacks an important component of happiness passion. True human happiness involves the active and passionate pursuit of a goal. Platos student Aristotle was also one of his earliest critics. Aristotle recognized the weaknesses of Platos concept of happiness and introduced a much-needed layer of empiricism to Platos philosophy. Aristotle was critical of Platos reliance on intuitive reason and a supposedly immutable world of ideas. Instead, Aristotle believed that knowledge should be anchored in real experiences that can be perceived by the senses. Plato thus viewed happiness as an abstract, a fringe benefit of living a virtuous life and facilitating a harmonious social organization. Like Plato, Aristotle also placed emphasis on the virtuous life. However, Aristotles concept of happiness also differed significantly from his predecessor. In contrast to Platos tripartite soul, Aristotle divided the human soul into two elements the rational and the irrational. While humans share irrational elements with animals, they also possess faculties that are distinctly human. For example, humans have the ability to control their bodily desires through reason. In addition, only humans are capable of logical calculation and intellectual activities, which Aristotle defines as intellectual virtue (Grant 256). Unlike Platos concept of happiness as an abstraction, Aristotle believed that happiness is based on human nature. The nature of happiness is itself based on human nature. For Aristotle, happiness can only spring from the rational part of the human soul and is therefore a goal unique to humans (Grant 256-257). The contrast between the two philosophers illustrates one of the greatest weaknesses in Platos philosophy. By emphasizing the all-importance of reason, Plato neglects other important aspects of human nature. These include the emotions, such as happiness and love, as well as desires, such as sex. This strict division of social labor between the social classes runs counter to many feelings that are considered fundamental parts of human nature. For example, while Plato is one of the few philosophers who believes that women can be governed by reason, he also stipulates that guardian women must not raise their own families. If they procreate and bear children, their offspring will be raised by another woman from the lower social ranks. With regards to sex, Plato views the sexual appetites as illicit. The failure to impose restrictions on ones appetites makes a person the victim of disorganized and unfocused demands. This leads Plato to make conclusions that corruption and social illnesses spring from uncontrolled human appetites (Kraut 325-226). Furthermore, other critics have pointed to the absence of a concept of good character in Platos teachings. There is no concept of sympathy or empathy for fellow human beings. As philosopher Max Eastman later writes, Plato sees the good person as ruled by reason, whereas most moral codes see good people as ruled by a passion that of love forfellow (humans) (96). The analogy of the cave underscores Platos emphasis on the importance of the examined life. People who see only manipulated shadows fail to see the bigger picture outside and can thus never be able to make properly informed decisions. They will continue to hold false values and ideals, and will continue to resist efforts made on their behalf to improve their lives. Though Platos vision of the ideal polis is rightly criticized for its strict hierarchical roles, he makes a significant contribution to political thought by maintaining that the political community must promote the well being of its citizens. After all, Plato wrote at a time when tyrants routinely used the resources of the nation-state in their own interests. The idea of the greater good being more important than the rights of the sovereign ruler is thus an important departure. As a result of this, Plato maintained that a good political leader must be educated. Also, while Plato is rightly criticized for ignoring human needs when he abolishes family ties for the ruling class, this severing of ties is geared towards the abolition of property. By removing family and property ties, Plato hopes that a political leader can truly make informed decisions based on reason and not simply based on their won or their loved ones interests. Finally, perhaps the most remarkable feature of Platos Republic is his startling idea of equality although limited among the sexes. Plato believed that qualified women can become members of the guardian class. Like men, Plato believed that there are women who are governed by reason and, by rights, should be accorded the responsibilities of governing (Smith 467). In addition to the Philosopher-Kings, Plato also believed in the possibility of Philosopher-Queens. Plato later expanded this thesis in Laws, saying that all citizen women should be allowed to take part in public affairs. They should be allowed to join athletic and military training, to dine in public communally and to receive education in political virtues (Saunders 480). In summary, much of the weaknesses in Platos political theory, as set about in the Republic, arise from an imperfect and rigid classification of human nature. Plato does not make allowances for basic human emotions and needs. As such, he prescribes social roles that, while supposedly serving the greater social good, force people to sublimate their own needs and desires. However, these weaknesses do not take away from the enduring importance of the Republic. First, Plato laid the foundations for a true democracy by stipulating that those who govern should act in the best interests of their citizens. Second, Plato recognized the importance of education, both in ensuring the qualifications of those who govern and that the citizens themselves can make informed political decisions. Most importantly, Plato presents an ideal community, where no one person is automatically privileged by wealth, birth or gender. It is an attractive ideal, where no ones needs are ignored and where every member strives to live an examined life. Platos ideal society has figured prominently in many later normative conceptions of ideal social orders. In Utopia, the influential 16th century vision of the ideal state, Thomas More incorporated Platos earlier negation of private property and the necessity for educated and qualified rulers. By the 18th century, French philosopher Emile Durkheim once again wrote of society as an organism requiring the integrated function of its parts in his The Division of Labor in Society. More recent history continues to show appropriation of Platos work, even though in very different forms. Max Nomad found significant parallels between the supposedly classless society of the Soviet Union under Nikita Kruschev and Platos ideal society. This included the division in Soviet society between peasants and merchants, the warriors/soldiers and finally, the members of the elite government (Nomad 10). Platos rejection of Athenian democracy should be viewed in its proper historical context, since during his time, the highest government offices were chosen by lottery. Though some may contest whether current democracy, as practiced in the United States, is truly representative, the availability of free expression and genuine public debate remains a cornerstone of many democratic societies today. In summary, despite their limitations, many of Platos ideal principles continue to hold relevance today. First is the general belief that leaders should be qualified through education, and that voters should be empowered to make informed decisions. Most societies also subscribe to the idea of a meritocracy, where the ability to rule is measured independently of wealth, gender or other forms of privilege. Finally, Platos belief in the importance of debate and dialogue continues to be upheld. In conclusion, Platos Republic was, in many ways, a product of its time. It was born out of Platos dissatisfaction with the way Athens was governed, a corrupt democracy and oligarchy that was ruled by the inept. As such, the ruling government did not take care of the needs of its citizens. Those who dared to question their authority, like Socrates, were executed. Many have rightly criticized Platos formulation of the tripartite soul and, based on this principle, the ideal society of guardians, auxiliaries and producers. This formulation privileges reason over other essential aspects of human nature, like emotions and passions. However, a critical reading and appropriation shows that Platos Republic has much to offer political and democratic theory today. The idea that governments should act in their citizens interests seems a given, but tyrants and despots were the norm when Plato wrote about his ideal society. Furthermore, the idea of a meritocracy a system that allows people to progress based on their own qualifications, rather than on privileges of wealth or status remains a strikingly modern idea. In the Republic, Platos most important contribution was to imagine an ideal that addressed the prevailing political and social injustices of his time. Today, more than 2500 years later, societies around the world continue to strive for Platos ideal. Works Cited Durkheim, Emile. The Division of Labor in Society. Translated by W. D. Halls. New York: Free Press 1997. Eastman, Max. Seven Kinds of Goodness. New York: Horizon Press, 1967. Grant, Michael. The Classical Greeks. New York: Charles Scribers Sons, 1989. Kraut, Richard. The Defense of Justice in Platos Republic. The Cambridge Companion to Plato. Richard Kraut, ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. Nomad, Max. Political Heretics: From Plato to Mao Tse-tung. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1963. Rice, Daryl H. A Guide to Platos Republic. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Plato. The Republic. Translated by Allan Bloom. New York: Basic Books, 1968. Saunders, Trevor J. Platos Later Political Thought. The Cambridge Companion to Plato. Richard Kraut, ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.

Communication In the Workplace Essay -- Effective Communication

In an interview with George Lakoff, a linguistics professor at the University of California, Berkeley, Ian A. Boal examines the social, political and economic implications of language and its relationship to the conduit metaphor. The interview, published in Boal's essay, Body, Brain and Communication, takes a closer look at the conduit metaphor in connection with computers and communication on the Internet and World Wide Web. More importantly, Boal-who is also a Berkeley professor-solicits Lakoff's views of computer technology and artificial intelligence; their effects on human values and the basic way people communicate and understand information in today's world. Essentially, the conduit metaphor enables thoughts and ideas to be communicated through connecting cables and wireless transmissions using language as objects and metaphors. An effective conduit metaphor causes the listener to receive and understand the meaning behind a message without having to engage in too much thought. Comprehension of an idea is achieved intuitively, instinctively or with feeling. The conduit metaphor is a basic parable belonging to a larger family of metaphors, many of which can be found on Lakoff's Conceptual Metaphors home page at Berkeley's Cognitive Science web site, http://cogsci.berkeley.edu/. The conduit metaphor, as described by its creator Michael Reddy, suggests that the mind can interpret ideas as objects that can be put into words, and thoughts are the organization or manipulation of those objects. Reddy says the objects that make up words or language reside in a storage container, or memory, where thoughts and ideas can be retrieved or recalled when needed. When ideas are converted into words, they can be communicated to someo... ...perform many of their job functions. Just imagine, however, if computers had the ability to not only assume a particular function, but also could think and reason in the same manner as you and I. Are human beings really ready for this type of innovation? The answer to this question may come sooner that we think. Works Cited Boal, Ian A. Body, Brain and Communication: An Interview with George Lakoff. Composing Cyberspace. Ed. Richard Holeton. Boston. McGraw Hill Publishing. 1998. (21-31). Ehrenreich, Barbara. Put Your Pants On, Demonboy. Composing Cyberspace. Ed. Richard Holeton. Boston. McGraw Hill Publishing. 1998. (80). Lakoff, George. Conceptual Metaphors. 22 Mar.1994. 23 Mar. 2000. http://cogsci.berkeley.edu/ Shirley, John. Wolves of the Plateau. Composing Cyberspace. Ed. Richard Holeton. Boston. McGraw Hill Publishing. 1998. (135-141).